MINERAL CONTENT AND PHYTOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SELECTED CAULERPA SPECIES FROM MALAYSIA
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Published:
Oct 21, 2020
Keywords:
Seaweeds mineral content total flavonoid content total phenolic content antioxidant
Main Article Content
Abstract
Seaweeds are abundant and are an important renewable resource for the coastal community since they are rich sources of minerals and natural bioactive compounds. Among them, the Caulerpa species under green seaweeds is widely consumed by locals in Southeast Asia. Edible seaweeds are often associated with various health benefits. However, in Malaysia, limited studies have been done on the mineral and antioxidant levels of seaweeds, especially for the Caulerpa species. Thus, the present study aimed to evaluate the variations of minerals and antioxidants of selected Caulerpa species in Malaysia. The samples were collected in two study sites, which were Blue Lagoon, Port Dickson and Merambong Shoal, Johor. Two species, C. racemosa and C. manorensis were recorded from Merambong Shoal, Johor, while five species were recorded namely C. sertularioides, C. racemosa var lamourouxii, C. lentillifera, C. racemosa var cylindracea and C. racemosa at Blue Lagoon, Port Dickson. Among all the Caulerpa species from both study sites, C. manorensis possessed the highest phosphorus content (139.54 mg/100g) while C. racemosa from both Merambong and Blue Lagoon Port Dickson’s calcium (Ca) content was significantly highest at 2318.33 – 2406.66 mg/100g. All the Caulerpa species possessed high sodium (Na) content ranging 9338.30 – 21748.30 mg/100g. For micronutrients, the highest zinc content was recorded in C. manorensis (3.40 mg/100g) while the copper content was significantly highest in C. racemosa from Port Dickson (1.05 mg/100g). The methanol extract of C. sertularioides possessed phytochemical attributes of high antioxidant activity (DPPH EC50 = 24.16 mg/mL) with a high FRAP value being recorded in C. lentillifera (27.09 mg TE/100g). The TPC and TFC were highest in C. lentillifera with 57.95 mg GAE/100g and 1506.41 mg QE/100g respectively. The present study revealed that Caulerpa species contained constituents with significant mineral compositions and phytochemical attributes suitable for pharmaceutical and nutraceutical uses.
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Ismail, M. F., Ramaiya, S. D., Zakaria, M. H., Mohd Ikhsan, N. F., & Awang, M. A. (2020). MINERAL CONTENT AND PHYTOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SELECTED CAULERPA SPECIES FROM MALAYSIA. Malaysian Journal of Science, 39(3), 115–131. https://doi.org/10.22452/mjs.vol39no3.10
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References
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Airanthi MKWA., Hosokawa M. & Miyashita, K. (2011). Comparative antioxidant activity of edible Japanese brown seaweeds. Journal of Food Sciences 76: 104–11.
AOAC (2000) Official Methods of Analysis. 17th Edition, The Association of Official Analytical Chemists, Gaithersburg, MD, USA.
Benjamin EJ., Muntner P., Alonso A., Bittencourt MS., Callaway CW. & Carson, A.P. (2019). Heart disease and stroke statistics-2019. Update: A Report from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2019 139: 56–528.
Benzie IF. & Strain, JJ. (1996). The ferric reducing ability of plasma (FRAP) as a measure of ‘‘antioxidant power’’: The FRAP assay. Analytical Biochemistry, 239: 70-76.
Berns DM. (2003). Physiological responses f Thallassia testudinum and Ruppia maritima to experimental salinity levels. Thesis (Phd), University of South Florida
Besada V., Andrade JM., Schultze F. & Gonzalez, JJ. (2009). Heavy metal in edible seaweed commercialized for human consumption. Journal of Marine Systems 75: 305-313.
Brand-Williams W., Cuvelier ME. & Berset, C. (1995). Use of a free radical method to evaluate antioxidant activity. LWT-Food Science and Technology 28(1): 25-30.
Cavas L. & Pohnert, G. (2010). The potential of Caulerpa spp. for biotechnological and pharmacological application. In: Israel A, Einav R, Seckbach J (eds.) Seaweed and their role in globally changing environments (Cellular origin, life in extreme habitats and astrobiology), Springer, Netherlands
Chia YY., Kanthimathi MS., Khoo KS., Rajarajeswaran J., Cheng HM. & Yap, WS. (2015). Antioxidant and cytotoxic activities of three species of tropical seaweeds. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine 15: 339.
de Gaillande C., Payri C., Remoissenet G. & Zubia, M. (2017) Caulerpa consumption, nutritional value and farming in the Indo-Pacific region. Journal of Applied Phycology 29: 2249–2266.
Dinabandhu S. & Charles, Y. (2005) Mariculture of seaweeds. Academic Press.
Domettila C., Brintha TSS., Sukumaran S. & Jeeva, S. (2013). Diversity and distribution of seaweeds in the Muttom coastal waters, south-west coast of India Biodiversity 4 (1): 105-110.
Dovi K., Ellen KP., Karla JM., Nicole KT., Patrick RW. & Anthony, DW. (2012). Antioxidant Activity of Hawaiian Marine Algae, Marine Drugs 10(2): 403–416.
Du HL., Ooi JLS., Rosmadi F. & Phang, SM. (2009). Spatial patterns of seaweed distribution in Malaysia using GIS. Proceedings of the SPIE, 7145, 71452H.1-71452H.9.
Gan MH., Siti Aisyah A., Nur Wahidah A., Amyra Suryatie K. & Noraien, MP. (2011) The diversity of seaweed in the veracity of Johor: with emphasis on the east coast Peninsular Malaysia expedition II 2006. Proceedings of Universiti Malaysia Terengganu International Annual Symposium, Terengganu, Malaysia, July 11-13, 2011, 429-433
Holdt SL. & Kraan, S. (2011). Bioactive compounds in seaweed: functional food applications and segislation. Journal of Applied Phycology 23(3): 543-597.
Indegaard M. & Minsaas, J. (1991). Animal and human nutrition. In: Guiry MD, Blunden G (eds.), Seaweed resources in
Europe uses and potential, John Wiley and Sons Ltd.
Jia ZS., Tang MC. & Wu, JM. (1999). The determination of flavonoid contents in mulberry and their scavenging effects on superoxide radicals. Food Chemistry 64(4): 555-559.
Jousson O., Pawlowski J., Zaninetti I., & Zechman, FW. (2000). Invasive alga reaches California. Nature 408: 157-158.
Kamaladhasan N. & Subramanian, SK. (2009). Influence of seaweed liquid fertilizers on legume crop, red gram. Journal of Basic Applied Biology 3(1–2): 21–24.
Krishnaiah D., Sarbatly R., Prasad DMR. & Bono, A. (2008). Mineral content of some seaweeds from Sabah’s South China Sea. Asian Journal of Scientific Research 1(2): 166–170.
Lloyd-Jones DM., Hong Y., Labarthe D., Mozaffarian D., Appel LJ., Van Horn L., Greenlund K., Daniels S., Nichol G., Tomaselli GF., Arnett DK., Fonarow GC., Ho PM., Lauer MS., Masoudi FA., Robertson RM., Roger V., Schwamm LH., Sorlie P., Yancy CW. & Rosamond, WD. (2010). Defining and setting national goals for cardiovascular health promotion and disease reduction: the American Heart Association's Strategic Impact Goal through 2020 and beyond. Circulation. 121: 586–613.
López J., Vega-Gálvez A., Torres MJ., Lemus-Mondaca R., Quispe-Fuentes I. & Scala, KD. (2013). Effect of dehydration temperature on physicochemical properties and antioxidant capacity of goldenberry (Physalis peruviana L.) Chilean Journal of Agricultural Research 73(3): 293– 300.
Mabeau S. & Fleurence, J. (1993). Seaweed in food products: biochemical and nutritional aspects. Trends in Food Science and Technology 4: 103-107.
Martin E. (1997). Principles of Human Nutrition. London: Chapman and Hall.
Matanjun P., Mohamed S., Mustapha NM. & Muhammad, K. (2009). Nutrient Content of tropical edible seaweeds, eucheuma cottonii, Caulerpa lentillifera and Sargassum polycystum. Journal of Applied Phycology 21: 75-80.
Matanjun P., Mohamed S., Mustapha NM., Muhammad K. & Ming, CH. (2008). Antioxidant activities and phenolics content of eight species of seaweeds from north Borneo. Journal of Applied Phycology 20: 367–373.
Mohamed S., Hashim SN. & Rahman, HA. (2012). Seaweeds: A sustainable functional food for complementary and alternative therapy. Trends in Food Science and Technology 23(2): 83-96.
Mole MN. & Sabale, BA. (2013). Antioxidant potential of seaweed from Kunakeswar along the west coast Mahashtra. Asian Journal of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences 3(22): 45-50.
Nagappan T. & Vairappan, CS. (2014). Nutritional and bioactive properties of three edible species of green algae, genus Caulerpa (Caulerpaceae). Journal of Applied Phycology 26: 1019–1027.
Norra I., Aminah A., Suri R. & Arif Zaidi, J. (2017). Effect of drying temperature on the content of fucoxanthin, phenolic and antioxidant activity of Malaysian brown seaweed, Sargassum sp. Journal of tropical agriculture and food science 45(1): 25-36.
Novoa AV., Andrade-wartha ERS., Linares AF., Si Lva Amo, Genovese Mi, González AEB., Vuorela P., Costa & Mancini-Filho, J. (2011). Antioxidant activity and possible bioactive components in hydrophilic and lipophilic fractions from the seaweed Halimeda incrassata. Revista Brasileira de Farmacognosia 21: 53-57.
Ou B., Huang D., Hampsch-Woodill M., Flanagan J. & Deemer, E. (2002). Analysis of antioxidant activities of common vegetables employing oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assays: A comparative study. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 50: 3122-3128.
Pattama R. & Anong Chirapart (2002). Nutritional Evolution of Tropical Green Seaweed Caulerpa lentillifera and Ulva reticulata. Kasetsart Journal - Natural Science 40: 75-83.
Phang SM. (2006). Seaweed resources in Malaysia: Current status and future prospects. Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 9(2): 185-202.
Phang SM., Lim PE., Ooi JLS., Yeong HY., Ng W. & Kupper, FC. (2008). Marine algae of Perak island, Jarak island and the Sembilan group of islands in the Straits of Malacca. Malaysia Journal of Science 27: 47-60
Phang SM., Wong CL., Lim PE., Yeong HY. & Chan, CX. (2005). Seaweed diversity of Langkawi island with an emphasis on northern eastern region, Malaysia Journal of Science 24: 77-94.
Rajauria G., Jaiswal AK., Abu-Ghannam N. & Gupta, S. (2012). Antimicrobial, antioxidant and free radical-scavenging
capacity of brown seaweed Himanthalia elongata from western coast of Ireland. Journal of Food Biochemistry 37(3): 322-335.
Ramaiya SD., Bujang JB., Zakaria MH. & Saupi, N. (2019). Nutritional, mineral and organic acid composition of passion fruit (Passiflora species). Food Research 3: 231-240.
Ramaiya SD., Bujang JS., Zakaria MH., King WS. & Shaffiq, SMA. (2013). Sugars, ascorbic acid, total phenolic content and total antioxidant activity in passion fruit (Passiflora) cultivars. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 93(5): 1198-1205.
Ramesh KS., Ramakritinan CM. & Yokeshbabu, Y. (2012). Proximate composition of some selected seaweeds from Palk bay and Gulf of Mannar, Tamil Nadu, India. Asian Journal of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences 3(16): 1-5.
Rasyid A. (2017). Evaluation of Nutritional Composition of the Dried Seaweed Ulva lactuca from Pameungpeuk Waters, Indonesia. Tropical Life Sciences Research 28(2): 119–125.
Ruperez P. (2002). Mineral content of edible marine seaweeds. Food Chemistry 79: 23-26.
Sarini AW., Nor’Aishah H. & Mohd Zaini, N. (2014). Determination of antioxidant activity for seven types of macroalgae. International Conference on Food Engineering and Biotechnoloy. IPCBEE vol. 65.
Selvaraj K., Murugalakshmikumari R. & Ramasubramanian, V. (2010). Bioremoval of nickel using seaweed as bioadsorbant. Journal of Basic and Applied Biology 4(3): 207–212.
Singleton VL. & Rossi, JA. (1965). Colorimetry of total phenolics with phosphomolybdic phosphotungstic acid reagents. American Journal of Ecology and Viticulture 16: 144-158.
Thilahgavani N. & Charles, SV. (2014). Nutritional and bioactive properties of three edible species of green algae, genus Caulerpa (Caulerpaceae). Journal of Applied Phycology 26: 1019-1027.
Thomas NV. & Kim, SK. (2011). Potential pharmacological applications of polyphenolic derivates from marine brown algae. Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology 32: 325-335.
USDA (2001). Agricultural research service. Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 14.
Venugopal V. (2011). Polysaccharides from Seaweed and Microalgae Marine Polysaccharides Food Applications. CRC Press, USA.
Vinayak RC., Sudha SA. & Chatterji, A. (2011). Bioscreening of a few green seaweeds from India for their cytotoxic and antioxidant potential. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 91: 2471-2476.
Wardlaw GM. (2003) Contemporary nutrition: Issues and insights. McGraw-Hill.
Wijesingher WAJP. & Jeon, YJ. (2012) Enzyme-assistant extraction (EAE) of bioactive components: a useful approach for recovery of industrially important metabolites from seaweeds: a review. Fitoterapia 83: 6-12.
Yap WF., Vangene T., Tan SH., Yoon-Yen Y. & Jactty, C. (2019). Decoding antioxidant and antibacterial potentials of Malaysian green seaweeds: Caulerpa racemosa and Caulerpa lentillifera. Antibiotics 8: 152.
Yow YY., Lim PE. & Phang, SM. (2011) Genetic diversity of Gracilaria changii (Gracilariacea, Rhodophyta) from West Coast, Peninsular Malaysia based on mitochondrial cox1 gene analysis. Journal of Applied Phycology 23: 219-226.
Zawawi MH., Idris MH., Kamal AHM. & King, WS. (2015). Taxonomic assessment of seaweed community from the coastal areas of Bintulu, Sarawak, Malaysia. Songklanakarin Journal of Science and Technology 37(2): 147–153.
Zemke-White WL. & Ohno, M. (1999) World seaweed utilization: An end-of-century summary. Journal of Applied Phycology 11: 369-376.
Zhou K. & Yu, L. (2004). Effect of extraction solvent on wheat bran antioxidant activity estimation. Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft und -Technologie 37: 717-721.
Airanthi MKWA., Hosokawa M. & Miyashita, K. (2011). Comparative antioxidant activity of edible Japanese brown seaweeds. Journal of Food Sciences 76: 104–11.
AOAC (2000) Official Methods of Analysis. 17th Edition, The Association of Official Analytical Chemists, Gaithersburg, MD, USA.
Benjamin EJ., Muntner P., Alonso A., Bittencourt MS., Callaway CW. & Carson, A.P. (2019). Heart disease and stroke statistics-2019. Update: A Report from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2019 139: 56–528.
Benzie IF. & Strain, JJ. (1996). The ferric reducing ability of plasma (FRAP) as a measure of ‘‘antioxidant power’’: The FRAP assay. Analytical Biochemistry, 239: 70-76.
Berns DM. (2003). Physiological responses f Thallassia testudinum and Ruppia maritima to experimental salinity levels. Thesis (Phd), University of South Florida
Besada V., Andrade JM., Schultze F. & Gonzalez, JJ. (2009). Heavy metal in edible seaweed commercialized for human consumption. Journal of Marine Systems 75: 305-313.
Brand-Williams W., Cuvelier ME. & Berset, C. (1995). Use of a free radical method to evaluate antioxidant activity. LWT-Food Science and Technology 28(1): 25-30.
Cavas L. & Pohnert, G. (2010). The potential of Caulerpa spp. for biotechnological and pharmacological application. In: Israel A, Einav R, Seckbach J (eds.) Seaweed and their role in globally changing environments (Cellular origin, life in extreme habitats and astrobiology), Springer, Netherlands
Chia YY., Kanthimathi MS., Khoo KS., Rajarajeswaran J., Cheng HM. & Yap, WS. (2015). Antioxidant and cytotoxic activities of three species of tropical seaweeds. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine 15: 339.
de Gaillande C., Payri C., Remoissenet G. & Zubia, M. (2017) Caulerpa consumption, nutritional value and farming in the Indo-Pacific region. Journal of Applied Phycology 29: 2249–2266.
Dinabandhu S. & Charles, Y. (2005) Mariculture of seaweeds. Academic Press.
Domettila C., Brintha TSS., Sukumaran S. & Jeeva, S. (2013). Diversity and distribution of seaweeds in the Muttom coastal waters, south-west coast of India Biodiversity 4 (1): 105-110.
Dovi K., Ellen KP., Karla JM., Nicole KT., Patrick RW. & Anthony, DW. (2012). Antioxidant Activity of Hawaiian Marine Algae, Marine Drugs 10(2): 403–416.
Du HL., Ooi JLS., Rosmadi F. & Phang, SM. (2009). Spatial patterns of seaweed distribution in Malaysia using GIS. Proceedings of the SPIE, 7145, 71452H.1-71452H.9.
Gan MH., Siti Aisyah A., Nur Wahidah A., Amyra Suryatie K. & Noraien, MP. (2011) The diversity of seaweed in the veracity of Johor: with emphasis on the east coast Peninsular Malaysia expedition II 2006. Proceedings of Universiti Malaysia Terengganu International Annual Symposium, Terengganu, Malaysia, July 11-13, 2011, 429-433
Holdt SL. & Kraan, S. (2011). Bioactive compounds in seaweed: functional food applications and segislation. Journal of Applied Phycology 23(3): 543-597.
Indegaard M. & Minsaas, J. (1991). Animal and human nutrition. In: Guiry MD, Blunden G (eds.), Seaweed resources in
Europe uses and potential, John Wiley and Sons Ltd.
Jia ZS., Tang MC. & Wu, JM. (1999). The determination of flavonoid contents in mulberry and their scavenging effects on superoxide radicals. Food Chemistry 64(4): 555-559.
Jousson O., Pawlowski J., Zaninetti I., & Zechman, FW. (2000). Invasive alga reaches California. Nature 408: 157-158.
Kamaladhasan N. & Subramanian, SK. (2009). Influence of seaweed liquid fertilizers on legume crop, red gram. Journal of Basic Applied Biology 3(1–2): 21–24.
Krishnaiah D., Sarbatly R., Prasad DMR. & Bono, A. (2008). Mineral content of some seaweeds from Sabah’s South China Sea. Asian Journal of Scientific Research 1(2): 166–170.
Lloyd-Jones DM., Hong Y., Labarthe D., Mozaffarian D., Appel LJ., Van Horn L., Greenlund K., Daniels S., Nichol G., Tomaselli GF., Arnett DK., Fonarow GC., Ho PM., Lauer MS., Masoudi FA., Robertson RM., Roger V., Schwamm LH., Sorlie P., Yancy CW. & Rosamond, WD. (2010). Defining and setting national goals for cardiovascular health promotion and disease reduction: the American Heart Association's Strategic Impact Goal through 2020 and beyond. Circulation. 121: 586–613.
López J., Vega-Gálvez A., Torres MJ., Lemus-Mondaca R., Quispe-Fuentes I. & Scala, KD. (2013). Effect of dehydration temperature on physicochemical properties and antioxidant capacity of goldenberry (Physalis peruviana L.) Chilean Journal of Agricultural Research 73(3): 293– 300.
Mabeau S. & Fleurence, J. (1993). Seaweed in food products: biochemical and nutritional aspects. Trends in Food Science and Technology 4: 103-107.
Martin E. (1997). Principles of Human Nutrition. London: Chapman and Hall.
Matanjun P., Mohamed S., Mustapha NM. & Muhammad, K. (2009). Nutrient Content of tropical edible seaweeds, eucheuma cottonii, Caulerpa lentillifera and Sargassum polycystum. Journal of Applied Phycology 21: 75-80.
Matanjun P., Mohamed S., Mustapha NM., Muhammad K. & Ming, CH. (2008). Antioxidant activities and phenolics content of eight species of seaweeds from north Borneo. Journal of Applied Phycology 20: 367–373.
Mohamed S., Hashim SN. & Rahman, HA. (2012). Seaweeds: A sustainable functional food for complementary and alternative therapy. Trends in Food Science and Technology 23(2): 83-96.
Mole MN. & Sabale, BA. (2013). Antioxidant potential of seaweed from Kunakeswar along the west coast Mahashtra. Asian Journal of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences 3(22): 45-50.
Nagappan T. & Vairappan, CS. (2014). Nutritional and bioactive properties of three edible species of green algae, genus Caulerpa (Caulerpaceae). Journal of Applied Phycology 26: 1019–1027.
Norra I., Aminah A., Suri R. & Arif Zaidi, J. (2017). Effect of drying temperature on the content of fucoxanthin, phenolic and antioxidant activity of Malaysian brown seaweed, Sargassum sp. Journal of tropical agriculture and food science 45(1): 25-36.
Novoa AV., Andrade-wartha ERS., Linares AF., Si Lva Amo, Genovese Mi, González AEB., Vuorela P., Costa & Mancini-Filho, J. (2011). Antioxidant activity and possible bioactive components in hydrophilic and lipophilic fractions from the seaweed Halimeda incrassata. Revista Brasileira de Farmacognosia 21: 53-57.
Ou B., Huang D., Hampsch-Woodill M., Flanagan J. & Deemer, E. (2002). Analysis of antioxidant activities of common vegetables employing oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assays: A comparative study. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 50: 3122-3128.
Pattama R. & Anong Chirapart (2002). Nutritional Evolution of Tropical Green Seaweed Caulerpa lentillifera and Ulva reticulata. Kasetsart Journal - Natural Science 40: 75-83.
Phang SM. (2006). Seaweed resources in Malaysia: Current status and future prospects. Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 9(2): 185-202.
Phang SM., Lim PE., Ooi JLS., Yeong HY., Ng W. & Kupper, FC. (2008). Marine algae of Perak island, Jarak island and the Sembilan group of islands in the Straits of Malacca. Malaysia Journal of Science 27: 47-60
Phang SM., Wong CL., Lim PE., Yeong HY. & Chan, CX. (2005). Seaweed diversity of Langkawi island with an emphasis on northern eastern region, Malaysia Journal of Science 24: 77-94.
Rajauria G., Jaiswal AK., Abu-Ghannam N. & Gupta, S. (2012). Antimicrobial, antioxidant and free radical-scavenging
capacity of brown seaweed Himanthalia elongata from western coast of Ireland. Journal of Food Biochemistry 37(3): 322-335.
Ramaiya SD., Bujang JB., Zakaria MH. & Saupi, N. (2019). Nutritional, mineral and organic acid composition of passion fruit (Passiflora species). Food Research 3: 231-240.
Ramaiya SD., Bujang JS., Zakaria MH., King WS. & Shaffiq, SMA. (2013). Sugars, ascorbic acid, total phenolic content and total antioxidant activity in passion fruit (Passiflora) cultivars. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 93(5): 1198-1205.
Ramesh KS., Ramakritinan CM. & Yokeshbabu, Y. (2012). Proximate composition of some selected seaweeds from Palk bay and Gulf of Mannar, Tamil Nadu, India. Asian Journal of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences 3(16): 1-5.
Rasyid A. (2017). Evaluation of Nutritional Composition of the Dried Seaweed Ulva lactuca from Pameungpeuk Waters, Indonesia. Tropical Life Sciences Research 28(2): 119–125.
Ruperez P. (2002). Mineral content of edible marine seaweeds. Food Chemistry 79: 23-26.
Sarini AW., Nor’Aishah H. & Mohd Zaini, N. (2014). Determination of antioxidant activity for seven types of macroalgae. International Conference on Food Engineering and Biotechnoloy. IPCBEE vol. 65.
Selvaraj K., Murugalakshmikumari R. & Ramasubramanian, V. (2010). Bioremoval of nickel using seaweed as bioadsorbant. Journal of Basic and Applied Biology 4(3): 207–212.
Singleton VL. & Rossi, JA. (1965). Colorimetry of total phenolics with phosphomolybdic phosphotungstic acid reagents. American Journal of Ecology and Viticulture 16: 144-158.
Thilahgavani N. & Charles, SV. (2014). Nutritional and bioactive properties of three edible species of green algae, genus Caulerpa (Caulerpaceae). Journal of Applied Phycology 26: 1019-1027.
Thomas NV. & Kim, SK. (2011). Potential pharmacological applications of polyphenolic derivates from marine brown algae. Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology 32: 325-335.
USDA (2001). Agricultural research service. Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 14.
Venugopal V. (2011). Polysaccharides from Seaweed and Microalgae Marine Polysaccharides Food Applications. CRC Press, USA.
Vinayak RC., Sudha SA. & Chatterji, A. (2011). Bioscreening of a few green seaweeds from India for their cytotoxic and antioxidant potential. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 91: 2471-2476.
Wardlaw GM. (2003) Contemporary nutrition: Issues and insights. McGraw-Hill.
Wijesingher WAJP. & Jeon, YJ. (2012) Enzyme-assistant extraction (EAE) of bioactive components: a useful approach for recovery of industrially important metabolites from seaweeds: a review. Fitoterapia 83: 6-12.
Yap WF., Vangene T., Tan SH., Yoon-Yen Y. & Jactty, C. (2019). Decoding antioxidant and antibacterial potentials of Malaysian green seaweeds: Caulerpa racemosa and Caulerpa lentillifera. Antibiotics 8: 152.
Yow YY., Lim PE. & Phang, SM. (2011) Genetic diversity of Gracilaria changii (Gracilariacea, Rhodophyta) from West Coast, Peninsular Malaysia based on mitochondrial cox1 gene analysis. Journal of Applied Phycology 23: 219-226.
Zawawi MH., Idris MH., Kamal AHM. & King, WS. (2015). Taxonomic assessment of seaweed community from the coastal areas of Bintulu, Sarawak, Malaysia. Songklanakarin Journal of Science and Technology 37(2): 147–153.
Zemke-White WL. & Ohno, M. (1999) World seaweed utilization: An end-of-century summary. Journal of Applied Phycology 11: 369-376.
Zhou K. & Yu, L. (2004). Effect of extraction solvent on wheat bran antioxidant activity estimation. Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft und -Technologie 37: 717-721.